Exploring Environmental Impacts of Mined Diamonds - Part 1: The Issues

(Edit: In a rush to get to the bottom-line? Click here to jump to the more positive next part in this series!)

On an Ontario radio station an announcer once spoke about millennials hating diamonds. But as a younger millennial, now that many of my peers are at an age where they are buying engagement rings, I can't say I've noticed particularly strong hatred for the mineral itself. What could definitely be said though is that there is increased interest in the ethics of the way diamond products are produced.

The Kimberley Process Certification Scheme (KPCS) is one method that diamond retailers like Tiffany & Co. have used to dramatically cut the trade of conflict diamonds (aka blood diamonds) used to fund wars. The process includes satisfying minimum requirements, promoting national legislation, increased transparency in practices, internal trade, and a certification process for shipments. The results? The Kimberly Process official website boasts that "participants actively prevent 99.8% of the worldwide trade [of conflict diamonds.]" 

In spite of gaps still left in the pursuit of ethical diamond mining, this is an accomplishment worth celebrating. This is especially significant for an industry that has been a source of income even in impoverished areas. But while the Kimberly Process mitigates some social consequences, it doesn't take into account environmental impacts of mined diamonds. 

This short series will hopefully serve as a collection of info for anyone looking at making an informed decision about purchasing diamonds or their alternatives. The goal also isn't to make anyone feel guilty for any jewelry they might own, but help increase awareness of the impacts of one of many mined commodities from an environmental perspective.

Environmental Impacts of Diamond Mining

Land and Habitat Disruption

Beginning with the most visible impact, all systematic mining practices involve habitat disruption. Forested areas are cleared so miners can have better access to areas rich in the desired resource, and lakes are drained to reach diamonds below. It is estimated that for every carat of diamond mined, over 250 tons of earth must be moved (Constable, 2022; Oluleye).

The excavation and blasting through kimberlite (the rock that surrounds diamonds) required for underground mining also comes with obvious land disturbance.

Even artisanal alluvial mining which results in comparatively less carbon emissions, left unregulated, leaves the door open for unrestricted land and water disruption (Levin Sources, Chupezi et al). That said, because it happens on a smaller scale the direct impacts are also smaller. 

While mine rehabilitation and mine closure practices do exist, this does not leave land disturbance a moot point. In an Imperial College London report on the environmental impacts of diamond mining, the writers quote Professor Saleem Ali, distinguished Professor of Energy and the Environment. Professor Saleem Ali says, “The most significant impact of mined diamonds in environmental terms is likely to be land disturbance and the overall magnitude of this is dependent on the ecosystem in which the mining is occurring."

About Alluvial Mining

The word "Alluvial" comes from Latin alluvius, which means "washed against" (USGS, 2016). Alluvial mining is a method of retrieving minerals that relies on the natural eroding forces of wind and water to transport them from kimberlite rock (igneous rock surrounding the diamond). After erosion, a diamond may be naturally deposited into the sediments at the bottom of a river where a diver can search for them.

Because most alluvial diamond deposits are hard to pinpoint, this type of mining often happens on an artisan basis, informally and unregulated, instead of industrially. It is estimated that 10% of the world’s rough diamonds are sourced via industrial alluvial mining, while a slightly larger 14% are through artisanal or small-scale alluvial diamond mining (diamondfacts.org, n.d.-a).

Alluvial mining is labour-intensive and uses much more rudimentary materials than other forms. While digging for information on the subject, I came across the artfully-drawn story of artisanal diamond-digger's job in Sierra Leone shared on vimeo here:

Credit: The Divers of Sewa (2020) by Laurent Cartier on Vimeo https://vimeo.com/444162165

Via: https://www.aureusboutique.com/abx/what-is-alluvial-mining

One expression from an artisan diver that particularly stands out is, "There are diamonds. You can work, you can fail, you can work you can fail. But the day you find, you'll prosper.... Sometimes, you can be unlucky for one or two months, but one day when you find a diamond you'll forget all that time you failed."

This quote from a tenacious worker leaves no question that diamonds themselves are both a source of income, and something that should continue to be kept in perspective as a luxury item. 

Air Pollution

Air pollution from diamond mining includes particulate matter that is transported by wind, nitrous oxide emissions, sulphur oxide emissions, as well as greenhouse gas emissions from fuel consumption (Oluleye). 

Professor Saleem Ali went on to say, "there can be additional water use and biodiversity impacts dependent on where the mining is occurring. The carbon emissions of mining are highly dependent on location. Cold climates such as Siberia or Northern Canada have larger carbon emission impacts. Artisanal alluvial diamond mining has less carbon emission impacts.”

Damage to Aquatic Ecosystems

Whether from sedimentation or disrupting particles at the bottom of water bodies, mercury pollution, or changing water ways, the mining of diamonds disrupts aquatic ecosystems. 

Since diamond extraction relies mainly on water rather than toxic chemicals, fortunately toxic pollutants are less of an issue. Meanwhile, water recycling and reduced water consumption is a larger focus (diamondfacts.org, n.d.-b).

Myth or Fact: Are natural salt-and-pepper diamonds more environmentally friendly?

From what I could gather, this is a myth.

From a social perspective artisan alluvially mined impure diamonds could be sold for more if there is increased demand for them in jewelry, so more money could go to artisan workers.

But from an environmental perspective, mined impure diamonds are no less damaging than purely clear ones. They are less in demand for jewelry but they would still be used for industrial purposes and require the same environmental costs to mine. (That said if you particularly like the salt-and-pepper look but are concerned about environmental impacts, see the box on impure lab-grown gemstones in part 2 of this series).

That's a lot to process. I'm looking to buy a diamond product, what do I do with this information?

It is up to each person to decide for themselves what is an acceptable buy. The changes in the status quo mentioned in Part 1 regarding blood diamonds is indeed a step in the right direction, and diamonds are far from the only mined product that we use. The goal of this post is not to guilt people on a single smaller part of a major problem.

However, if you are looking to buy a piece of jewelry ultimately for a good feeling but also with environmental consciousness, the good news is there are options!

Stay tuned for Part 2 on awareness and alternatives.

~~

Sources

Chupezi, T. J., Ingram, V., & Schure, J. (n.d.). Impacts of artisanal gold and diamond mining on livelihoods and ... - CIFOR. CIFOR. https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/BChupezi0901.pdf

Constable, H. (2022, February 24). How diamonds are going green. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200207-the-sparkling-rise-of-the-lab-grown-diamond

diamondfacts.org. (n.d.-a). Alluvial diamond mining fact sheet. https://www.diamondfacts.org/pdfs/media/media_resources/fact_sheets/Alluvial_Mining_Background.pdf

diamondfacts.org. (n.d.-b). Diamond Mining and the environment fact sheet. https://diamondfacts.org/pdfs/media/media_resources/fact_sheets/Diamond_Mining_Environment_Fact_Sheet.pdf

The Divers of Sewa. (2020). vimeo. Retrieved December 6, 2023, from https://vimeo.com/444162165.

Le Temps. (2018, May 10). Diamond trade still fuels human suffering. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/05/10/diamond-trade-still-fuels-human-suffering

Levin Sources. (2020, November). How to bring about Forest-smart mining: Strategic Entry Points for ... https://www.levinsources.com/assets/pages/How-to-bring-about-forest-smart-mining-strategic-entry-points-for-institutional-donors.pdf

Oluleye, G. (n.d.). Imperial Consultants. imperial-consultants.co.uk. https://www.imperial-consultants.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Final-report-Environmental-Impacts-of-Mined-Diamonds-updated-8-21.pdf

USGS. (2016, June 20). EarthWord–alluvial fan: U.S. geological survey. USGS. https://www.usgs.gov/news/science-snippet/earthword-alluvial-fan#:~:text=Alluvial%20comes%20from%20the%20Latin,which%20meant%20%E2%80%9Cwashed%20against.%E2%80%9D

Edited 2023-12-08

What's a Watershed?

King City, Ontario

Depending on where you live, "watershed" may be a term you hear often. However, many people do not know what a watershed is, or how it is relevant to them.

Not long ago I had the opportunity to learn all about watersheds, but from the start found myself asking what constitutes as a watershed.

What is a watershed?

"the area of land that catches precipitation and drains into a larger body of water such as a marsh, stream, river, or lake" (SEAWA, 2014).

"A watershed is a topographically bounded area... that possesses a measurable drainage area (eg. 100 hectares), where all runoff from a precipitation event will be conveyed downstream, ultimately reaching the outlet of the area" (Introduction to Watersheds, 2020).

Imagine you are sculpting a shallow bowl with gently sloped sides. Now, if you were to add little peaks and indents on the inside of the bowl, you have just modified the topography of your bowl. After the bowl is finished, if you were to leave it out in the rain any rain that fell along the sloped edges would be funneled through the indents down to the lowest point in the bowl, maybe leaving other little pockets of water here and there.

topography: the physical appearance of the natural features of an area of land, especially the shape of its surface. - Cambridge Dictionary

In this analogy, not only middle pool of water but the entire inner surface of bowl is the the "watershed". It is an entire area of land that collects precipitation such as rain and drains it to a common place.

Watersheds exist in many different shapes, and can drain into many different types of water bodies. They are not limited to inland water bodies either; amoung water bodies such as lakes and large rivers, precipitation may also drain towards an ocean (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2002).

References:

Cambridge. (n.d.). TOPOGRAPHY: meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary. Retrieved from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/topography

Missouri Botanical Garden. (2002). Retrieved from http://www.mbgnet.net/fresh/rivers/shed.htm

SEAWA. (2014). What is a Watershed? Retrieved from http://seawa.ca/our-watershed/what-is-a-watershed/

Introduction to Watersheds. (2020). Introduction to Watersheds. Slide 3.

American Psychological Association 6th edition formatting by BibMe.org.

edited 2020-02-11

Thousands of Brooding Octopuses off the Coast of Monterey, California

https://www.theweathernetwork.com/ca/videos/gallery/rare-thousands-of-brooding-octopuses-found-off-california-coast/sharevideo/5855861738001/most_popular

So many octo... octopi?

For any of you who remember Nature Nimbus' Hall of Fame (it's still there, just not with it's own tab!) but Monterey was where Ed Ricketts (marine biologist friend of author John Steinbeck) lived.

(Sorry for all the parentheses tonight)

Dear Divers --Sustainable Diving Practices

Hi guys... finally started a post-secondary Environmental Technician course so have been working on homework more than blog posts, but a couple publishable pieces coming soon!

In the meantime, for for ocean-lovers and divers (and aspiring ones), here is an article published by world nomads about safe diving practices:

https://www.worldnomads.com/make-a-difference/responsible-travel/planet/redefine-the-dive-10-tips-for-sustainable-divers?utm_source=worldnomads&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=nomadsnews-73-oct-row&utm_content=button

If you've been reading Nature Nimbus for a while you might have already noticed some keen personal interest shown in diving. Spending time close to nature is probably the most natural way we come to deeply appreciate it (no puns intended); nature lovers don't typically need to be taught this. At the same time, even in ecotourism humans are known to accidentally leave a negative impact on what we love so much.

Also, some freedivers on Instagram have cautioned for those using dive scooters to also make sure they don't end up chasing aquatic wildlife (as tempting as it may be) to get as close to them as possible.

If you happen to be going on a trip whether it's diving or exploring nature some other way, a quick google or asking a local naturalist or expert can help in getting some simple tips to ensure we are respecting the beauty we have come to visit, and seek to become a part of in that moment.

History in the Storeys of Sediments in an Ontario Lake

Hi guys, hope everything is having a great summer in the northern hemisphere/winter if you are in the south.

Just wanted to share some local news from Ontario on the research side of things, as the Weather Network reported that a team of researchers believes they may have found a treasure trove of environmental history at the bottom of a lake, which happens to be right here in Ontario!

What they're looking for is a way to examine what might have been a turning point due to human activity, changing the way our planet operates on a significant level.

Francine McCarthy, who is leading the research team, explained that Crawford Lake is an ideal place to be taking samples because nothing lives as the bottom, as the lake is 22 meters deep and anoxic, (anoxic meaning there is little to no oxygen).

If you have ever explored the Niagara escarpment, chances are the stones rocked your world. These are not only parts of the habitat beautiful to the eye, but over time they also can tell a story. McCarthy explained that over summers, pieces from the rocks bordering the escarpment will sink to the bottom. This creates layers of information-containing organic matter that can be analyzed like the rings of a tree.

The goal is to get some insight on just how much human activities have affected the environment, as these layers can help tell the story of what has happened globally through those years.

Specific information they are looking for includes amounts of materials related to human activities such as plutonium and microplastics. These can serve as something measurable to help with defining the start of the anthropocene, marking when humans really did take over the planet.

Source:
https://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/team-of-researchers-from-ontario-believe-a-turning-point-in-earths-history-is-sitting-in-a-lake-in-milton-brock-carleton-mcmaster-university-sediment-crawford-lake/109666

Happy World Oceans Day

Sea mindful and keep an ocean mind, and have a happy World Oceans Day, all 💙

Day-After-Earth-Day, Featuring: Plastic Pollution in the ocean

Happy Day-After-Earth-Day, all. It feels kind of like the day after coming home from a vacation, party, or seeing a friend you don't get to spend time with as often as you like. For treehuggers and nature-lovers it's close enough because we want every day to be Earth Day, so here's a day-after post to extend the inspiration and good feelings.

Within the last few years I've lived vicariously through divers who post photos and videos of their adventures having peaceful, voluntary interactions with wildlife. Divers on Instagram like @kimkertz and @its.krystalclear are inspirational not only as athletes and explorers, but artists and advocates for ocean conservation, and conscientious interactions with wildlife.

One of the biggest problems facing Earth's oceans is plastic pollution, so reducing consumption of plastic is always a great resolution to renew, and definitely one I intend on revisiting more this year.

Recently a newsflash hit explaining that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is actually even more hug than originally estimated... it's now estimated to be three times the size of France. Plastic all around the oceans will keep floating, keep releasing toxins, and keep ending up inside the bodies of animals.

Doing things like remembering to bring reusable shopping bags in-store and remembering to bring a reusable water bottle, and coordinating everything to pack a litterless lunch make a difference. Personally, I know I have a hard time remembering things; I was notorious at an old workplace for forgetting my reusable water bottle at our booth.

The most practical things that have helped me include investing in a glass water with a bright orange cover; it's hard to forget, and easy to clean without gross smells last-minute if I forgot to the night before. (Sorry if that's TMI, it's true.) And for reusable shopping bags it's pretty easy; keep it in another bag. The thin, foldable ones that wrap up inside themselves nicely have been great to keep in a purse, and their very presence in my canvas bag helps serve as a reminder to bring other ones.

Here are a few links to more information if you're interested in reading more and seeing their visualizers (I highly recommend the video in link #2 in particular).
Sailing Seas of Plastic interactive map: http://app.dumpark.com/seas-of-plastic-2/
TWN how to really make a difference Earth Day feature: https://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/what-earth-day-means-when-humans-possess-planet-shaping-powers/99911/
5 Gyres information on plastic continents and how to help: https://www.5gyres.org/ 

For this Earth Day, I resolve to remember what to do to reduce plastic consumption, and remember why I'm doing it (with the help of the divers and ocean photographers of instagram). What has inspired you this past Earth Day?

Hope you all enjoy basking in the Earth Day afterglow and carry it forward, lighting the way to better living.

Comments on Cancer Villages Map

Awareness truly can change the way people look at things. It's not just a cliche that knowing what reality is like in less privileged situations increases appreciation for what we do have when taken to heart.

Five years ago I learned about China's Cancer villages, and it has never left the "featured" list on this blog since. It is a terrifying, and moving report. But what I didn't know was that Deng Fei, a Chinese journalist, published a map of these cancer villages in China. Today, English-readers have a translated version of that map available to explore here:

https://www.google.com/maps/d/viewer?mid=1R70M9vbPN104K-YqFlUnK1xUDoY&hl=en_US&ll=30.187076758346265%2C112.28646500000013&z=5

If you zoom in and select specific villages, there is even a short description of their specific situation on the left.

Eg: (found at G106 / the southernmost point on the mainland)
"name

Shaoguan, Wengyuan Counties; Xinjiang Township, Shangba village and 5 others

description

Legal Daily: 2001 report

A large amount of mining wastewater flowed into Shangba village. The “village of fish and rice,” saw its arable land take on a brownish-red color. Reports say an increasing number of villagers are contracting skin disease, liver disease and cancer. As for ducks, the fastest death happens within 4 to 5 hours, and the slowest occurs within 3 to 4 days"

This visual had brought something to my attention that may or may not be relevant, that all the listed  villages fall within the Eastern half of China.

Why? To be honest I don't know. Maybe that is the "only" ground Deng Fei could cover. All the same, I'd want to thank him for bringing this to the world's attention because evidently what he did has started steps to clean things up.

https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn23212-china-takes-steps-to-clean-up-cancer-villages/

Coral Pink and Peach

Some days I could sink a ship with my navy (blue) mood

Drag it down, such a downer in the dumps

While my coral peach

Feels so out of reach.

---

More water works poetry: http://lunar-winds.blogspot.ca/search/label/water

---

Fact about coral, 'Bleached' white coral does not equal dead coral: http://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-great-barrier-reef-not-dead-20161014-snap-story.html

Lingering in the Air

Sometimes it's surprising to see how long it takes to clear lingering tension from the air.

It has been discovered that a parallel principle applies to the literal air surrounding a chemical plant in St. Louis, Muchugan, that had been shut down long ago.

In 1978 the Michigan Chemical (also called Velsicol Chemical) was closed because it posed a threat to the environment. However, despite years of cleanup the air and ecosystems surrounding the Superfund site remain contaminated 36 years later.

• Environmental Word of the Day - Superfund: A program run by the American government for the long-term cleanup of hazardous waste sites that are dangerous to ecosystems and/or (therefore by default) human health.

The contamination of the atmosphere was measured by testing the concentrations of pollutants in the barks of trees in the area, including chemicals that had been produced by the plant like DDT, PBB, and HBB. For comparison, they also tested chemicals that were not produced by the plant and found that within a 6km radius there were still "relatively high levels of HBB, PBBs, and DDTs in the air they [the ones living there] breathe" (Proscia, 2014).

Don't Hold Your Breath

Angela Peverly, the lead author of the study, stated it well: "People can't control what they breathe" (Proscia, 2014). Although the exact potential threat for long-term effects on the health of people in the area has not yet been investigated, we know that it is there.

An article by Amanda Proscia regarding the study published September 20, 2014 in Great Lakes Echo also included a summary of the history behind the plant concluding that after cleanup of a leakage into the Pine River contamination of fish in the river "dramatically dropped, but a 1982 no consumption warning for all species of fish remains in effect" (Proscia, 2014).

Taking into consideration all these things, these lingering chemicals are not safe for humans or other animals, and a lack of a numerical value to measure exactly how harmful it is certainly is not a reason to ignore it. The article mentions the idea of discarding contaminated trees instead of exporting them, but states that "The EPA did not respond to numerous requests for comment" (Proscia, 2014), though on their website they state their involvement (Environmental Protection Agency, 2014). Still, there are other sources that we can pull information from to piece together what all this could mean, and what the takeaway is.

What do the chemicals do to living things?

It is important to remember that as the first law of ecology states, everything is connected to everything else. Even if only one of these elements were effected, it inevitably would affect others in the ecosystem. 

DDT

• Low levels (even 0.1 micrograms/litre) can slow photosynthesis and growth in green algae (Cruising Chemistry, n.d.).
• DDT has proven to greatly harm birds, especially ones that eat fish, and cause eggshells to thin (Cruising Chemistry, n.d.).
• High levels can cause reproductive problems in fish (Gilbert, DeCarvalho, 2013).
• Although  absorbed through skin, it is also toxic to humans (Cruising Chemistry, n.d.) and if ingested it can be stored in fatty organs and contaminate breast milk
• Carcinogenic, an endocrine disruptor, and can have reproductive and developmental effects (Gilbert, DeCarvalho, 2013).

• Endocrine disruptor: A chemical that messes up the hormone system.
• Carcinogenic: Cancer-causing

PBB

*much was learned about the harmful effects of PBB when mislabeling/mismanagement of chemicals at a chemical plant in Michigan during the 70s (we can only guess which one) caused contamination of this flame-retardant in feed for farm animals.

• PBB proved to cause skin disorders, effects on the nervous system, liver, kidney, thyroid glands, and immune systems in animals tested with PBB, and death of given high amounts. 
• The thyroid is a major organ in the endocrine system.
• Carcinogenic; Animals fed PBB in developed cancer
• Accumulates in the body, and effects can worsen in the long-term (ATSDR, 2011)

HBB

(a type of PBB)

• An endocrine disruptor
• Possible carcinogen
• "lipophilic and able to bioconcentrate" (POPs Toolkitm n.d.)... meaning it can be stored and accumulate in fat, and the concentration can be greater in the organism than the contaminated environment.

Now What?

As of July 2014, the EPA and Michigan Department of Environmental Management are continuing the cleanup in the nearby residential areas, cleanup design work at the actual former site, and replacement of municipal drinking water.

Still, a question worth asking is, 'Who pays for pollution?' 

...the cleanup? Taxpayers/people.

...the research? Universities/students/people.

...the pollution? Everyone.

When we make choices that are better or worse for the environment, it comes back to us. The the dirt and the atmosphere and the river are not the ones that feel unwell when they are polluted.

An even better question to ask 'is what can we do about it?'

Note, the mislabeling of chemicals was an accident. The contamination is not evidence that mismanagement is motivated by an intent to harm, but how easily it can happen, and about how important it is to be aware.

Despite having a limited reach, here is something we can do:

• Keep aware. Look into where your products are coming from, and avoid ones containing toxic chemicals or emit toxins in their production.

This will help protect people from exposure to these dangerous chemicals through the products they buy and ecosystems overall if the consumer demand for such products goes down. It is not fair for anyone to be exposed to toxic chemicals in air or water; it is not something that an individual can simply choose not to do, but our power lies in the choices we do have every day.

Sources
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. (n.d.). Public Health Statement for Polybrominated Biphenyls (PBBs). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Retrieved October 1, 2014, from http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/phs/phs.asp?id=527&tid=94

Cruising Chemistry. (n.d.). Effects of DDT. Cruising Chemistry. Retrieved September 30, 2014, from http://people.chem.duke.edu/~jds/cruise_chem/pest/effects.html

Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Superfund. EPA. Retrieved September 28, 2014, from http://www.epa.gov/superfund/

Environmental Protection Agency. (2014, July 18). Velsicol Chemical Corp. (Michigan) - Region 5 Cleanup. EPA. Retrieved October 1, 2014, from http://www.epa.gov/region5/cleanup/velsicolmichigan/

Gilbert, S. G., & DeCarvalho, J. P. (n.d.). DDT. Toxipedia. Retrieved September 30, 2014, from http://www.toxipedia.org/display/toxipedia/DDT

POPs Toolkit. (n.d.). Hexabromobiphenyl (HBB). Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Toolkit. Retrieved October 1, 2014, from http://www.popstoolkit.com/about/chemical/hbb.aspx 

Peverly, A. A., Salamova, A., & Hites, R. A. (2014, September 11). Air is Still Contaminated 40 Years after the Michigan Chemical Plant Disaster in St. Louis, Michigan. ACS Publications. Retrieved October 1, 2014, from http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es502809f

Proscia, A. (2014, September 30). Air near chemical plant remains polluted long after it closed. Great Lakes Echo. Retrieved October 1, 2014, from http://greatlakesecho.org/2014/09/30/air-near-chemical-plant-remains-polluted-long-after-it-closed/?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+greatlakesecho%2Fall+%28Great+Lakes+Echo+%28All%29%29

'PET Peeve' - Disposable Plastic Bottles

Roderick Chen / All Canada Photo / Universal Images Group

PET stands for polyethylene terephthalate, a type of plastic which can be identified by the recyclable symbol number '1'. It is typically used for single-use disposable water bottles which are extremely commonplace in many parts of the world such as North America.

Because PET plastic bottles are not only convenient but also recyclable, it can cause a consumer of water to question the validity of the claim that they are not 'eco-friendly'. However, there are problems associated with their use for ecosystems which also includes humans.

The Issues

Disposable water bottles generate massive amounts of waste every day around the world. In fact, the project 'Watershed' by MSLK, a graphic design firm in New York, estimates that about 1500 plastic bottles are used per second in the United States alone. It would take a lot of energy every day to recycle all these water bottles into other plastic products, however, although they can be recycled, only about 23% of the bottles used in the United States actually are recycled.

PET plastic will take a very long time to decompose, at an estimate of 700 years. Most plastic bottles are not recycled but instead sent to ever-growing landfills which have other associated issues such as land space, effects on local communities, and leaching into water sources.

Many plastic water bottles unintentionally end up polluting oceans. There is a landfill, similar to a plastic island, in the Pacific Ocean estimated to be about the size of Texas, composed mostly of plastic water bottles that the current accumulated. Small plastics such as the bottle caps (which cannot be recycled) also often end up harming wildlife directly, as animals such as sea birds accidentally ingest them or feed them to their young, mistaking it for food.

The solution lies in using reusable water bottles that can be refilled with tap water.

5 Reasons to Use Reusable Water Bottles (Instead of PET Plastic)

1. Reduce waste produced from thousands of water bottles disposed daily, and reduce the energy required to process the ones that get recycled.

2. Save money spent on hundreds of plastic water bottles by making the one-time purchase of a reusable one.

3. Prevent pollution and plastic bottles from accidentally ending up in bodies of water, and bottle caps from being ingested by wildlife.

4. Don’t support water being taken from communities to be used in bottled water sold to other places where water is already available through a tap. Some large bottling companies even continue to take water during periods of drought when water is scarce.

5. Avoid ingesting antimony. Although levels are low, it can leach into water from PET bottles increasing over time in storage, and can be easily avoided.

At a first glance one plastic water bottle is easy to dismiss as a small thing that has no real significance in the grand scheme of things, but they accumulate with such mass amounts. A person living in America may use an average of 167 disposable water bottles a year, but could replace all of them with just one reusable one, which is a small change that can go a long way.

If you are looking for information on what type of reusable bottle best fits your purposes, feel free to take a look at this older post that compares two different types of reusable water bottles.

Sources

banthebottle.net

http://www.factsonpet.com/frequently-asked-questions/

http://stopnestlewaters.org/about

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17396641

http://www.treehugger.com/clean-water/the-us-consumes-1500-plastic-water-bottles-every-second-a-fact-by-watershed.html

http://action.sumofus.org/a/nestle-water-ontario/4/2/?sub=homepage

A Report on Flooding and Climate Change

Climate Change Effects - Flooding

Melody Tadeo

    While there are many impacts climate change has on the environment and therefore also human society, one of the most concerning ones is the increased risk of flooding. This is an issue involving both water and atmosphere as flooding may occur because of increased amounts of precipitation in some regions, spring runoff, and may also along the coast as sea levels rise. During "storm surges", changes in the wind and atmospheric pressure due to storms already cases damage which will only be increased with a rise in sea level. Floods are a threat to human health and security, economy, and natural ecosystems.

     One of the implications of atmospheric change is higher potential for rainfall in some regions. Around the world many communities have been built around bodies of water, putting people living near rivers and on floodplains at risk during times of heavy rainfall. The UK Environmental Agency has already provided an online map available to citizens to locate areas that are at a higher risk of flooding, specifically near rivers and the coast. After the Somerset Levels Flood, it took three months for the land to dry and it may be two years before the soil returns to levels where viable crops can be grown. Land animals are also vulnerable to floods, as reported during flooding in Britain in February 2014. Many animals such as ground-dwelling hedgehogs and badgers also drown in floodwaters, and surviving animals may suffer from a lack of food resources. Floodwaters may also carry pollutants such as lead, waste, toxic chemicals from industrial areas, and pesticides, which can affect both wild animals in flooded areas and livestock that may ingest contaminants while grazing. Populations of bumblebees that were hibernating as well as earthworms would also greatly decrease for many drown during floods or their hibernating cycle is disrupted.bumblebees play the vital role of pollination, and the affects on creatures such as earthworms will likely make its way up the food chain.

     In other places such as the Sacramento San-Joaquim River Delta, flooding may threaten water source quality and supply for people due to runoff. The University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) states "[on] average, U.S. flooding kills more than 100 people a year --more than any other single weather hazard, including tornadoes and hurricanes" and that the toll due to flooding has actually increased in recent decades. During times of unexpected flash floods the strength of the water is sometimes underestimated, and about half of related deaths are due to driving into flooded areas to cross streams or drive on the highway. 

     In other communities, however, driving is not the greatest threat to human safety but rather complete displacement of communities and illness; from 1970 to 2008 over 95% of disaster-related deaths occurred in developing nations. In August 2010 over 20 million people in Pakistan lost their homes and over 1,500 people lost their lives in the most devastating flood in the country's history. Even after the initial damage was done water-related illness continued to inflict people and World Health Organization said "waterborne, airborne and vector-borne diseases, including acute watery diarrhea, measles, malaria and acute respiratory infections, are threats due to overcrowding, lack of hygiene and breakage in waterlines". In crowds of people that found themselves homeless there was fear of political unrest, "flood riots", and people fought over limited amounts necessities such as food. According to the federal flood commission, 557,000 hectares of agricultural land was flooded in Pakistan, over 10,000 cows died, and overall the damage was estimated to cost about $7.1 billion.

     During the following year a number of countries in the Global Climate Risk (GCR) Index --including Brazil, El Savadore, Laos, and Thailand-- had record-breaking natural disasters. The GCR reported that floods and landslides caused over 1,000 deaths in Brazil, and 45 deaths and $43 billion of flood damage when Thailand was hit by tropical storm Nock-ten also in 2011. These are only a few examples of floods that cause damage to land, including communities and ecosystems, threaten human health and safety, and have negative economic effects. For coastal countries like Cuba that largely depend on tourism, a rise in sea level could also put a major industry in jeopardy, as well as the natural ecosystems that attract so many visitors.

     Aquatic ecosystems are already vulnerable to a number of environmental threats, and spring runoff could also affect the water quality of coastal areas, such as Chesapeake Bay and the Gulf of Mexico where "dead zones" are already being created due to agricultural fertilizer runoff, threatening the lives of animals in aquatic ecosystems as well as biodiversity. In saltwater and freshwater ecosystems flooding of rivers and creeks also causes erosion of soil that can prevent vegetation from being able to grow --also making it even more vulnerable to erosion by later rainfall-- and damaging habitats of animals such as turtles. Although some species can still survive, many are forced to move to higher ground and floodwaters can also spread species of fish and other aquatic wildlife into neighboring ecosystems as foreign and potentially invasive species if they are able to survive. Chemicals such as fertilizers can be transferred and pollute ecosystems during floods, as well as various other contaminants including sediments, nutrients, and even fresh water that can change the water quality that local species require to survive.

     Especially under the influence of other environmental and social concerns, including rising sea levels, increased tropical storm activity, and changes in rainfall which can also affect inland areas, flooding poses severe threats to human lives, societies, and natural ecosystems. While flooding is a natural phenomenon, it is important that needs to be prepared for as the effects of climate change become ever more apparent and complex.

References

Batty, D. (2010, August 14). Impact of Pakistan floods as bad as 1947 partition, says prime minister. theguardian.com. Retrieved March 27, 2014, fromhttp://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/aug/14/pakistan-flooding-disaster-partition-gilani

Bawden, T. (2014, February 17). UK weather: Floods could have devastating environmental impact as animals drown or die from lack of food . The Independent. Retrieved March 27, 2014, from http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/uk-weather-floods-could-have-devastating-environmental-impact-9132299.html

CNN Wire Staff. (2010, August 21). Death toll from Pakistan flooding tops 1,500 as risk of diseases rises. CNN. Retrieved March 27, 2014, fromhttp://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/asiapcf/08/21/pakistan.floods.death.toll/

Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Southwest Impacts & Adaptation. EPA. Retrieved March 26, 2014, from http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/impacts-adaptation/southwest.html

Irin news. (n.d.). CLIMATE CHANGE: Natural disasters made history in 2011. IRIN news - Humanitarian news and analysis. Retrieved March 27, 2014, fromhttp://www.irinnews.org/report/96895/climate-change-natural-disasters-made-history-in-2011

MCEER. (n.d.). Pakistan Floods 2010: Latest Facts, News, Photos & Maps. Pakistan Floods 2010: Facts, News, Photos & Maps. Retrieved March 27, 2014, fromhttps://mceer.buffalo.edu/infoservice/disasters/Pakistan-Floods-2010.asp

University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. (n.d.). Flooding Fact Sheet. UCAR. Retrieved March 26, 2014, from http://www.ucar.edu/communications/factsheets/Flooding.html

Wharton, J. (2014, March 27). Finally dry: The Somerset Levels are free from floods - THREE months after the rain. Daily Express UK RSS. Retrieved March 27, 2014, from http://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/467251/Finally-dry-The-Somerset-Levels-are-free-from-floods-THREE-months-after-the-rain

Wildlife Preservation Society of Qld. (n.d.). Environmental Impact of Floods - February 2011. Wildlife Queensland - Environmental Impact of Floods. Retrieved March 27, 2014, from http://www.wildlife.org.au/news/2011/flooding5.html

     

Soil Salinization

By Ashley Gervais-LeClaire, Kijana Henry, and Melody Tadeo

This was a group project for an environmental science class about the causes, effects, and potential solutions of soil salinization. This is the handout, and you can follow this link to see Ashley's Prezi.

Soil Salinization

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The buildup of salt in soil occurs when there is insufficient irrigation, and salts from the water remain in the soil increasing the salt concentration, degrading the soil. Soil salinization affects approximately 33% of the world’s irrigated land, and can cause damage to biodiversity, agriculture, and water sources.

Natural Causes:

- Water movement causes salt to accumulate in soil increasing salt concentration when water evaporates and leaves salts behind. Risk increases with arid soil and when there is more meltwater than plants need, and decreases with more rainfall.

- Overwashing and seepage of saline waters and salt spray from crashing waves in saltwater bodies.

- Rising of the water table.

Anthropogenic Causes:

- Road salts washing onto land.

- Overuse of fertilizers.

- Improper water management

- Over-exploitation of groundwater leading to intrusion of saline water in the water table.

- Fallowing and overgrazing in dryland areas.

Soil Salinization in Canada:

-  Occurs in the Southern areas of the prairies. Saskatchewan and Alberta are at greater risk because they are more arid than Manitoba.

-  The decrease in Summer Flow farming had decreased the salt content of the prairie soil. (Summer Flow is a farming practice that leaves farmland out during growing season so the nutrients in the soil are retained for future crops.)

-  Along with the nutrients the salt in the soil is also retained making the soil for salt.

Effects:

- Many plants are intolerant of high levels of salt, because the salts decrease water uptake from the roots, excepting halophytes (salt-tolerant plants).

eg. red buckeye, white ash, honeylocust, saltbush, St. John’s wort, and bayberry.

Mosses are often very tolerant to to sodium salts (such as the most common in salinization, NaCl), but are susceptible to potassium salts.

- Kills plants, lowering biodiversity of plants and reduces food sources for other species.

- Potential desertification of arid lands.

- Many crops are harder to cultivate in agriculture, decreasing human food sources, reducing sales for farmers, and having a negative impact on the economy.

- Water sources can be tainted by salinization in surrounding soil, decreasing water quality and affecting aquatic ecosystems and other species relying on the water source.

Solutions and Preventative Measures:

- Minimize the use of fertilizers, and ensure that fertilizer use is in safe doses.

- Planting trees in agricultural areas (“agroforestry”) reduces risk of soil salinization.

- Using organic matter to improve soil structure, drainage and moisture holding capacity.

- The planting of salt-sensitive plants uphill or away from salted roads, and planting salt-tolerant plants where there is high risk of salinization.

- Mulching to prevent evaporation and buildup of salts.

- Leaching through sufficient irrigation and monitoring the quality of irrigated water, ensuring that it has safe amounts of salt (< 0.5 g/L is best).

Bibliography

Appleton, B. e. (2009, May 1). Trees and Shrubs that Tolerate Saline Soils and Salt Spray Drift - Home -

Virginia Cooperative Extension . Publications and Educational Resources - Home - Virginia Cooperative Extension . Retrieved February 19, 2013, from http://pubs.ext.vt.edu/430/430-031/430-031.html

Dregne, H. E. (n.d.). Desertification of Arid Lands. Center for International Earth Science

Information Network. Retrieved March 8, 2013, from http://www.ciesin.columbia.edu/docs/002-193/002-193.htm

Eblin, J. (n.d.). Use of Salt to Kill Moss | eHow.com. eHow | How to Videos, Articles & More -

Discover the expert in you. | eHow.com. Retrieved February 19, 2013, from http://www.ehow.com/facts_7201481_use-salt-kill-moss.html

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). Forests, Trees and Food. FAO:

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, for a world without hunger. Retrieved February 19, 2013, from http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/U5620E/U5620E05.htm

Food and Agriculture Organization if the United Nations. (n.d.). Water quality for agriculture. FAO: Food

and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, for a world without hunger. Retrieved March 5, 2013, from http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/T0234E/T0234E02.htm

Gergely, T. (n.d.). Soil Salinisation. EUSOILS - European Soil Portal Home Page. Retrieved February

19, 2013, from http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/library/themes/salinization/

Department of Primary Industries. (n.d.). Chapter B7. Managing saline soils. NSW Department of

Primary Industries. Retrieved May 3, 2013, from www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/127259/Managing-saline-soils.pdf