Two Sides of Illegal Hunting Part 2B: Loss to Biodiversity & Ecosystems

(Note: This is part 2B of the series Two Sides of Illegal Hunting which explores both sides of the issue of illegal hunting. Parts 1A and 1B introduce with reasons to explain why illegal hunting happens, and parts 2A and 2B will feature consequences and reasons against it. A third section, an informal reflection, will also be included. Links to the full series can he found here: http://naturenimbus.blogspot.ca/p/series-two-sides.html)

Loss To Biodiversity & Ecosystems

History has proven multiple times that the threat of extinction for species that are over-hunted is warranted; in conjunction with other environmental threats such as loss of habitat, humans have caused losses to our planet’s biodiversity. The dodo bird is a well-known animal that was brought to extinction because of overhunting by humans. Dodo birds’ lack of flight and fear made them vulnerable to human hunters, leading to their extinction in the mid-to-late 17th century, despite only being discovered in 1581 (Czartoryski, 2011). Without regulations set in place and abided by to limit the killing of birds, they were wiped out due to overhunting, leaving the details of their species lost in history. But even if regulations are set in place, if they are not followed dire consequences are bound to occur.

By extension illegal hunting also affects all other life in the ecosystem by extension and without limit, affecting other species whose survival depends on the other, or which is controlled by the other. Studies showed that the poaching of tropical birds and mammals for bushmeat “can cause zoochorous trees to suffer from reduced seed dispersal.... Recent and ongoing extirpations of vertebrates in many tropical forests could be creating an extinction debt for zoochorous trees whose vulnerability is belied by their current abundance.” (Brodie, 2009). Because of interdependency within an ecosystem, an effect on one population may also inadvertently affect other species.

As mentioned previously, tigers are becoming more rare due to poaching and habitat destruction. About a century ago there were about 100 000 tigers in the wild, but many have now there may be as few as 3 300, putting them at risk of extinction (World Wildlife Fund). Similarly, despite African elephants’ vulnerable state and protection by law, National Geographic’s Investigative report from 2012 showed that in 2011 poaching levels were the peak of the decade. That same year, in Central Africa more than half of all elephants found dead were illegally killed (Environmental Investigation Agency, Petitioner International Rhino Foundation, Petitioner, June 2014) and because of declining populations they are currently a vulnerable species and more and more of their lives are brought to an end by poachers to take their tusks, diminishing biodiversity (Blanc, J. et al. 2008). The range for African elephants already diminishes with an expanding human population, and with both habitat loss and hunting, the estimated population of African elephants went from 1.3 million elephants in 1979, to 472 000-690 000 in 2007. The slaughter of elephants for their tusks extends beyond Africa, also into different countries in Asia including China where 90 600 pounds of ivory was seized from 1989-2011, and the amount of seized ivory to measure killings only represent a portion of elephants slaughtered for their tusks. This loss of life also affects other parts of the ecosystem which elephants are a part of. As mentioned previously, Countless animals have been affected by unsustainable human activity, and not adhering to hunting regulations threatens the very existence of entire species.

Sources (for this part only)

Brodie, Jedediah. "Bushmeat poaching reduces the seed dispersal and population growth rate of a mammal-dispersed tree.." National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine, n.d. Web. 2 June 2014. <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19544729>.

Czartoryski, Alex . "Hunter Safety Blog | HunterCourse.com." 10 Animals Hunted (or Nearly Hunted) To Extinction «. N.p., 24 Aug. 2011. Web. 23 May 2014.

<http://www.huntercourse.com/blog/2011/08/10-animals-hunted-or-nearly-hunted-to-extinction/>.

Blanc, J.J.; Barnes, R.F.W.; Craig, G.C.; Dublin, H.T.; Thouless, C.R., Douglas-Hamilton, I.; Hart, J.A.. African Elephant Status Report 2007.

Environmental Investigation Agency, Petitioner International Rhino Foundation, Petitioner, Petition to Certify Mozambique as Diminishing the Effectiveness of the Convention on

International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). (June 2014).

. Retrieved February 2, 2015, from http://eia-global.org/images/uploads/FINAL_Mozambique_Pelly_Petition_Appendix_B_June_27_2014.pdf

Two Sides of Illegal Hunting: Poverty (part 1B)

(Note: This is the second part of the series Two Sides of Illegal Hunting which explores both sides of the issue of illegal hunting. Parts 1A and 1B introduce with reasons to explain why illegal hunting happens, and parts 2A and 2B will feature consequences and reasons against it. A third section, an informal reflection, will also be included. Links to the full series can he found here: http://naturenimbus.blogspot.ca/p/series-two-sides.html)

Reasons Behind Illegal Hunting: Poverty

One of the biggest reasons poachers take the risk of trespassing onto private property to hunt illegally is poverty. Many species are protected by the law because they are rare, also causing them to be considered more valuable to buyers and a means of potential economic benefit to those who can catch them.

Today the rarity of tigers makes their skins, bones, teeth, and claws even more valuable to those looking to purchase them. World Wildlife Fund states, “Parts from a single tiger can fetch as much as $50,000 on the black market, making the poaching of these magnificent creatures very alluring to criminal networks” (World Wildlife Fund, 2013). While some parts of animals like tiger skin and bone wire are bought as luxuries and status symbols, an illegal hunter’s reasons for poaching often are not out of want for luxuries, but out of need.

Although elephant tusks are not taken to meet any needs for survival for the consumer, it could help provide for the needs of the hunter, as “[a] single large tusk sold on the local black market can bring $6,000, enough to support an unskilled Kenyan worker for ten years” (Stirton, 2014).

Ivory carved into charms and ornate patterns. All images are from Encyclopaedia Brittanica ImageQuest Archives. 

In another African country, Tanzania, a survey of hunters by M.R. Nielsen conducted in 2006 in the Udzungwa Mountains found that illegal hunting is linked to poverty, family size and “composition”, or members. In another survey the following year conducted by E.J. Knapp in a region in Tanzania, no poaching households reported having full-time employment (Brennan, 2011). The connection between lack of employment and illegal hunting, especially in economically desperate regions. Tanzania’s  Gross National Income (GNI) per capita in 2012 was $570, almost $1000 below that of the average in Sub-Saharan Africa, and far below that of Canada with a GNI of $51 570 per capita in 2012 (World Bank, 2014). Unlike developed countries like Canada that import much of its goods including food products, Tanzania is highly dependent on agriculture but only a little more than 4 per cent is arable land, and an estimate by the World Food Program states that about 40% live in chronic food-deficit areas (World Vision, 2014). In areas where primary means of making a living is unreliable and opportunities to earn resources are limited, some turn to illegal hunting to make a living.

In a different mountainous region in Vietnam,

“[Ho, a] Pa Co ethnic man from the mountainous A Luoi district in Thua Thien-Hue province used to collect firewood for a living, but he started to hunt in 2010 after he saw a local restaurant owner buy a 50kg pig for 2.5 million dong. In contrast, 60kg of firewood is only worth 400,000 dong and he could not support his family, he says.” (UCA News, 2012)

In Vietnam, Ethnic minority groups like Pa Co often live with an underdeveloped infrastructure, isolated them from any of the country’s prosperity. These groups often depend on on low agricultural yields and forestry like Ho did, and a 2004 survey found that over 60% of minority groups were below the poverty line (Global Exchange, 2011). Just as with legal products, illegally hunted wildlife on the black market is backed by a continual demand from consumers, and economic need and poverty motivating the hunters to take that risk.

Works Cited (for this part only)

Brennan, Dervla, Mikolaj Czajkowski, Asanterabi Lowassa, Anke Fischer, Nick  Hanley , Mirko  Moro , and Loi  Naiman. "What can be done to reduce illegal hunting?  An investigation using choice experiments in the Serengeti,  Tanzania ." bioecon. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 May 2014. <http://www.bioecon-network.org/pages/13th_2011/Hanley_1.pdf>.

Global Exchange. "Vietnam: Poverty in Vietnam | Global Exchange." Global Exchange. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 June 2014. <http://www.globalexchange.org/country/vietnam/poverty>.

Stirton, Brent. "Blood Ivory". National Geographic Oct. 2012: 63. Print. Web. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2012/10/ivory/stirton-photography

UCA news reporter. "Illegal hunting is big business, driven by poverty - ucanews.com." ucanews.com. N.p., 14 Aug. 2012. Web. 26 May 2014. <http://www.ucanews.com/news/illegal-hunting-is-big-business-driven-by-poverty/58145>.

World Bank. "Tanzania." The World Bank. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 June 2014. <http://data.worldbank.org/country/tanzania>.

World Vision. "Country Profiles: Tanzania." World Vision. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 May 2014. <http://www.worldvision.org/our-impact/country-profiles/tanzania>.

World Wildlife Fund. "Problem." Save Tigers Now. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 May 2014. <http://www.savetigersnow.org/problem>.

All images are from Encyclopaedia Brittanica ImageQuest Archives.

Two Sides of Illegal Hunting Part 1A: Cultural Expression

Illegal Hunting

(Part 1A)

Melody Tadeo

For many species, hunting is an important part of survival which naturally plays a part in maintaining a sustainable ecosystem. It is a basic instinct that continues the movement of energy between biological organisms and a large part of the flow of natural food chains. It nourishes and keeps populations under control, however, as is the case with many other natural and processes this too has been over-exploited and has caused problems that many believe make it necessary to make hunting of certain species against the law.

Nevertheless, just because something is illegal that does not necessarily make it inherently wrong, and just because something is legal that does not automatically justify it. While the rules vary in scope and scale around the world, some are willing to risk the legal and environmental consequences.

(Note: This is the first part of the series Two Sides of Illegal Hunting which explores the various perspectives of parties involved in and affected by illegal hunting. Parts 1A and 1B introduce with reasons to explain why illegal hunting still happens, and parts 2A and 2B will feature consequences and reasons against it. Although this was a technical assignment, a third nontechnical reflective section will be included. Links to the full series can he found here: http://naturenimbus.blogspot.ca/p/series-two-sides.html)

Reasons Behind Illegal Hunting: Cultural Expression

Sometimes one reason illegal hunting takes place is one to gather resources to be used in cultural expression. African elephants are often killed by poachers —hunters who trespass to hunt illegally—  for their tusks, providing material for the demand for ivory for various cultural traditions. Ivory carving is traditionally done in Asia to create religious objects, and amulets are believed to bring the wearer luck and protection from harm in general, and particularly black magic. National Geographic’s investigative report published in October 2012 stated “although the world has substitutes of all of ivory’s practical uses, its religious use is frozen in amber.” An individual expresses, “[ivory] is very precious... so to be respectful [of God] one should use precious material” (Christy, Bryan, 2012). Also believed by some to bless both the giver and receiver of ivory, it is a valuable material in high demand that some use in both religion and cultural artistic expression for the bone’s aesthetic appeal. Parts of a tiger such as the whiskers, eyebrow, teeth and paw soles are also believed to hold magical abilities. These are used in traditional magic rituals and some believe they hold special powers to people who wear the teeth, protecting the wearer from curses similar to the use of ivory, and as a means of cultural expression.

An adult pangolin. All images are from the Encyclopaedia Brittanica ImageQuest Archives.

Pangolins are a scaly, ant-eating mammal and an endangered species protected by law that is used in some traditional Chinese medicine. The scales, called Chan Shan Jia, are “traditionally used in Chinese medicine to disperse blood stasis... reducing swelling and promoting discharge of pus... and for expelling wind-dampness (for pain due to... arthritis)” (The Journal of Chinese Medicine). This practice has preserved one small part of  Chinese culture in a world that many believe is becoming  increasingly “Westernized” and less culturally diverse. Not only as a cultural tradition, Chan Shan Jia has also proven to be an effective natural remedy and benefit to human health. However, although other natural alternatives to pangolin scales have been found (The Journal of Chinese Medicine) they continue to be hunted for pangolin wine for their aesthetic appeal. Their scales and skin are sometimes used in the fashion industry, a vanity some willing to pay a lot of money for which provides more incentive for traffickers (Soft Schools).

Works Cited (for Part 1)

Christy, Bryan. "Ivory Worship." National Geographic Oct. 2012: 63. Print.

The Journal of Chinese Medicine. "Pangolin." The Journal of Chinese Medicine. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 May 2014. <http://www.jcm.co.uk/endangered-species-campaign/pangolin/>.

Soft Schools. “Pangolin Facts”. Soft Schools. N.p., n.d. Web. December 2014. http://www.softschools.com/facts/animals/pangolin_facts/108/

All images are from Encyclopaedia Brittanica ImageQuest Archives.